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The reference to the juez is on the page (of the Nahuatl version) marked 19 at the bottom. the abandoned boy Yasali was scared to death, being just a child, and he hid inside the place where a cross now stands in Concha Sica. 1914 Documentos inéditos del siglo XVI para la historia de México. 99 Tom Cummins Inkaic symbolic objects and/or images of them cannot, however, be considered as a naturally occurring phenomenon, endemic to any colonial formation. 1 Andean llama sacrifice. University of California Press, Berkeley. But the Quincentennial events, exhibitions, speeches, films, and writings touched large sections of the population that had never thought much about the indigenous cultures in this hemisphere and had never considered the impact that this particular cultural and biological exchange has had on the world. 29 Chacra Yapuy Quilla from Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Nueva corónica y buen gobierno, ca. 5 Entries in a Tlaxcalan annal for the years 1639–42. See also Aymara; bilingualism among Nahuas, 362, 377 Testerian, 155, 159, 161 and sermonal in standardized Quechua, 384 Christianization, 371 conversion, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 162, 362, 368, 457 attributed to Christ and the saints, 378 customs Ash Wednesday, 315 prayer, routines of, 333 importance of sacra: God, Christ, the saints, 368 introduction of, 218 kinship ties among saints, Virgins, and Christ, 347–348 Andean concept of, 348 chronicles of Chicxulub and Yaxkukul. Geronymo de Contreras, Lima. Some years earlier Pedro Sánchez de Aguilar reported having confiscated from a Maya maestro a copybook containing an indigenous version of the story of the creation, and he complained that such Maya myths and histories were being written down and read in community meetings (Sánchez de Aguilar 1987: 115). At the very end of the seventeenth century the Franciscan Andrés de Avendaño claimed to have argued the Itza Maya of Tayasal out of further resistance to Spanish rule by citing their own prophecies and counting katun cycles with them (Avendaño y Loyola 1987: 38–41). In another part of the composition, a female holds out a pair of aquillas or keros to the male. 52). Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif. 1966 Spain in America. ANTUÑANO Y RIVAS, SEBASTIÁN DE 1966 Relación de la casa y santuario de la Santísima Trinidad y Santo Cristo de la Fe y Maravillas [1670]. On two occasions in the early seventeenth century the citizens of Metepec, modern State of Mexico, when questioned about any papers or paintings they might have, offered to go to their village and prepare some.15 If such a scenario amuses the legally-minded, it also underscores the cross-cultural misunderstanding maintained by so many outside observers today who might denigrate the integrity of producers of such “instant” land titles or such titles themselves. . Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico. From our foundation in the precontact period, we saw opportunities for greater understanding if we reached across the traditional “divide” of the invasion and conquest and looked at the PostColumbian world.The focus would remain on indigenous cultures, but it would be directed toward these cultures in their newly changed, postconquest environments. Green Point, Cusco: See 3,787 unbiased reviews of Green Point, rated 5 of 5 on Tripadvisor and ranked #8 of 1,149 restaurants in Cusco. 315 Sabine MacCormack pass over these doors in order to smite the firstborn of the Egyptians only.28 At the same time, however, Guaman Poma was interpreting rather than merely inventing the Inka past, as becomes clear if we juxtapose his account of January with Molina’s comments about the month of December.29 Molina called the month of December by the same term Camay quilla, “month of labor,” that Guaman Poma applied to January. Goods provided by Huejotzingo toward construction in Mexico City. 19, 350). 16: 71–74. Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif. LÓPEZ DE GÓMARA, FRANCISCO 1964 Cortés: The Life of the Conqueror by His Secretary (Lesley Byrd Simpson, trans. 62, 147–148, seeking successor to Guayna Capac. Equally important, one finds that the keros, aquillas, and kumbi (tapestry) textiles listed in the wills are not only old but new.48 These objects continued to be produced and valued, and it is in this context that the continuity of costumbres in terms of the sites of Andean representation operated openly in colonial society. 1600 (? K’anchaq rawraq, zuma killa Chiqan p’unchawpa ziqaynin Hinantimpa suyakuynin Qam millaqpaq ch’uqi illa 65 Mana yawyaq pampa killa Diospa llaqtan 12. 226 Stephanie Wood Guaman Poma’s coat of arms (in this volume, 100–102). But one far-reaching change has occurred: the kin-structured idiom of “heroic history” no longer suffices to explain the perpetuation of Concha’s bond with Yansa; the means of renewing culture’s bond to nature from year to year and generation to generation is legal contractuality in a startingly literal sense. 144 Colonial Andean Images and Objects CUMMINS, TOM 1991 We Are the Other: Colonial Portraits of Kurakakuna. POPOL VUH 1985 Popol Vuh (Dennis Tedlock, trans. haps meant to represent Santiago), and a figure playing a trumpet are represented in each of four sections.51 In the fifth section, the cerro de Potosí itself is depicted with figures working both on the surface and within the shafts, the very source of the material from which the vessels were made. Courtesy of the Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico. 109 Tom Cummins Fig. But in return, you’ll herd my llamas.” 12 The witnesses give the dam-builder various names, but none quite match Llacsa Misa’s. Valadés had good reason to stress the early instructional innovations of his Franciscan brothers, because in 1564 the Council of Trent decreed to the Catholic flock the legitimacy and efficacy of using images to spread the faith. Phoenix House, London. The parishioners’ reluctance to accept the new faith also emerges in this community’s memory of a newly-constructed temple (Christian church?) Francisco de Avila, like the other extirpators of the seventeenth century, thus perceived in Andean festive display clandestine articulations of the idolatrous beliefs of the past. . See also cacique; tiana wills of, 114 LaGasca, bishop, 56 471 Index Lake Texcoco, 238 Lake Titicaca, 295, 346, 354 Lampaz, village of, 295, 298, 339 Landa, Diego de, 421, 425, 428, 431 landscape map, 277 language. On one side of the tunic, facing rampant lions appear, and on the other side, a bicephalic crowned eagle appears (Fig. 10, the 1692 document of the toma de posesión, is attached to a 1752 document concerning the Cacicazgos de Hatun Sigachos or Sicchos “en la jurisdiccion de Latacunga.” 35 For a discussion of the relation of portraits of colonial kurakakuna and the establishment of privilege, see Cummins (1991). While a means of controlling rain had obvious appeal, I suspect the response would not have been nearly so memorable had those rain clouds responded to a few silent prayers. Between what the Nahuas were and what they could be or could have been lay an impassable rhetorical gulf. Allpanchis Phuturinqa 3: 202– 212. To be able to keep certain objects that document these [ancestral] connections attests to one’s power to hold oneself or one’s group intact. 1 Title page, Ritual formulario. On the other hand, we also know that there were Greeks who learned Italian, especially as a language of high culture, and that, quite early on, the Greek of the island was influenced by Italian and Venetian. Then, when the Audiencia offically returned Temascalapa to Tepexpan in 8 Flint (1552), that fact is pictorially recorded, too, by the series of dots that reattach the sweat bath to the yearband (Noguez 1978: 135–138). 1990: 45; Garibay K. 1949. One example comes from an extirpation trial against an accused Indian witch whose clients included a coterie of local Spaniards. 1941 Nueva colleción de documentos para la historia de México, vol. When battle against a particular town was decided upon, the Tenochtitlan tlatoani called on the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan to declare war, but he also called on the rulers of the other polities to do likewise; this action indicates that this was not solely a “Triple Alliance” enterprise. Of English missionaries among the Tshidi of South Africa, Comaroff (1985: 138) remarks: “. Skilled painters were selected to create this pictorial report because this case was destined to go before the Council of the Indies. .” The same view was held by Juan Polo de Ondegardo (1916, 3: chaps. [He throws flower petals.] 1: chap. 6, exp. Indians were adroit with Spanish ironies, turning them around so that honor’s barbs mocked their Iberian creators. San Martín, Lima. inéditos 1870, 13: 255). In addition, as Molina had been told, this was the period when the Ayarmaca, an ethnic group from the vicinity of Cuzco, celebrated the initiation of their young men (Molina 1943: 47).16 Betanzos (1987, bk. In Relaciones geográficas de Indias: Perú, vol. These children, siblings, and wives of Pachacamac became religious enclaves whose temple storerooms were filled with the products of the soil dedicated to the deity. As a final example, Arguedas’s poem Katatay, written in the 1960s, encapsulates a learned and historically potent imagery in a modernist poetic form, published in Quechua but accessible to most of its readers only through a thinned-out Spanish translation. On the pots there are representations of the lost codices—sometimes bound in jaguar skins—opened before their seated readers, glyphs leaping from their pages (Fig. I will explain these initial developments 348 Pachacamac and El Señor de los Milagros and the transformation of these earlier beliefs into the present-day devotion of El Señor de los Milagros, a very deeply felt religious practice in Peru that has spread to other countries as well. They are objects that, whatever happens to them, are perceived to belong in an inherent way to their original owners . As the mighty past of the Spanish Vira Cochas is visible until now, so, too, would be theirs” (Huarochirí Manuscript 1991: 1, 41). 27 (after Guaman Poma 1980: 1132). MURRA, JOHN V. 1962 Cloth and Its Functions in the Inka State. 311 Sabine MacCormack Fig. 2nd ed. See Aztec cultural identities, as moral battlefield, 63 Culua. 2 James Lockhart and I have a number of publications, both joint and individual, about this topic; in particular, see Karttunen and Lockhart 1976, Karttunen 1982, and Lockhart 1992. Bruce Mannheim, Jorge Klor de Alva, Kitty Allen, and Heather Lechtman gave me much to think about in Washington, as did Bill Fowler, Steve Houston, and Tom Gregor of Vanderbilt University’s anthropology department, where this paper had its second hearing.The volume’s anonymous readers also offered helpful critiques. and trans.). AND TRANS.) de la Nueva España” and “Origen de los Mexicanos” were addressed directly to the Spanish monarch, supporting the petition for favor and restitution of hereditary rights for Doña Isabel. ): 331–406. Something a bit similar to the Nahua stages is reported from North America, involving a different European nationality and indigenous groups very differ- 35 James Lockhart ently constituted from the Nahuas. Universidad Nacional de San Marcos, Lima. 6). Oxford oxz 6DP Oxford University Press is a departrnenl, Sanity in the World of Darkness Game: Original World of Darkness Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany. COCK CARRASCO, GUILLERMO, AND M. E. DOYLE 1980 Del culto solar a la clandestinidad de Inti Punchao. Lima. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Alva Ixtlilxochitl called it the “Original History,” and his narrative of Texcoco’s pre-imperial history is essentially a verbal reading and interpretation of the Xolotl codex. 18). I am interested in the kind of manuscripts they were and why they were painted, in order to explain their social and administrative niches and the documentary needs they served. From what remains painted on paper and leather, we can only speculate on the full range of use to which the various peoples of Mesoamerica put their logosyllabic writing systems. 9 Baptismal scene from the Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco, Latin American Library, Tulane University, New Orleans. Opinions were divided on this subject, and they were also divided on the related issue concerning the role that Andean people ought to play in colonial society. This ruling triad has come to be known as the “Triple Alliance,” which is often used synonymously with the Aztec empire (Carrasco 1991: 93). Here too, the political content is disguised because the reversals of formal structures make the text self-concealing. In that scenario, the task would be nearly impossible. See also Nahua: “Conjuros” literacy program, 439 Morner, Magnus, 72 Moteuczoma, Hispanized form of Moctezuma, 237 Motolinía, Toribio, 150, 154, 156, 162, 165, 239, 242, 243, 244, 245–246, 247, 248, 249, 252, 363, 365 “Memorial de los Pueblos,” 239, 245– 246 Memoriales, 239, 242, 243, 245, 248 “Motolinía Insert,” 239, 240, 245–246, 247, 249 mulato, mulatos, 63, 75, 76 Municipal Codex. In sum, during the middle decades of the sixteenth century several petitions and accompanying tribute lists were produced by native rulers contending that prior to Spanish contact only these three cities had been cabeceras and received tribute from dependent communities (Gibson 1964: 50). Biblioteca Historica Mexicana de Obras Inéditas. Indianism, acknowledging (intentionally? See Christ señor, señores, 186, 235, 239, 240, 243, 246, 252 señores naturales, 186 señores principales, 186 señores universales, 245, 246 Severino, Matheo, scribe, 425 Index sex. Incas—Social conditions—Congresses. Nashville, Tenn. 194 Pictorial Documents and Visual Thinking in Postconquest Mexico Colonial Culhuacan, 1580 –1600. Guaman Poma believed this also, but for him the Inka past remained a matter of lived experience because it constantly impinged on his experience and perception of the present. Muchas gracias Rafael.... Pronto volveré, Me fascinó todo. In the background, city wall and buildings of Paris, with the Sainte Chapelle at right. Tulane University, New Orleans, La. 1988 The Writing of History (Tom Conley, trans.). Bruce Mannheim and Frances Karttunen show how much language continues to be an armature for Indian identity from the sixteenth century to the present. As historical sources providing reliable, detailed information on boundaries or official acts by local leaders, títulos demand considerable caution in their handling. Therefore, a rapid assimilation with the native population was impossible, even though part of that population was Christian (albeit heretical) and thus had many points of similarity with the conquerors. .” (my emphasis) (Garcilaso de la Vega 1919, 2: 192). They weave long carpets of flowers, which they attach to mats of palm or rushes, and thus they depict all manner of images, figures and stories, in the same way as can be seen in the tapestries of Flanders. Publicaciones del Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas. Fig. These three señores were all “muy considerados,” and, furthermore, they had divided up all the conquered lands among themselves (Motolinía and Olarte 1914: 228). Cultural convergence is also an element in the attraction of outsiders, bringing in larger numbers of Europeans and intensifying contact. Hanaq pachap kusikuynin is a Christian hymn composed before 1622 and included in a church manual for priests. 10). Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain (Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble, eds. 25a One of a pair of aquillas from the Atocha, before 1622. They would have suffered a very different fate than the silver aquillas discussed in my paper. 18–20); the form in an almost pure preconquest style. Andean women and men were often quick to modify Spanish policies in line with their own notions of how local government should be organized. 1992 The History of the Codez Mendoza. 30, 219), all misspell Ayarmaca as Ayamarca, but Murúa (1962, bk. 3rd ed. In Colonial Spanish America (Leslie Bethell, ed. ): 151–202. . Routledge, London and New York. Phallcha phallchalla/cha|kichallaman Phuña phuñacha/cha|kichallaman Mama taytallay/kan|tarumuwan Tayta mamallay/kan|tarumuwan Phallcha phallcha just to (his) little feet Phuña phuña just to (his) little feet My parents sing to me//My parents lock me My parents sing to me//My parents lock me a 5. They ask the “Owners” to receive offerings and beg permission for the members of the community to draw irrigation water in the coming year. 215 The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos fill in where local memory was sketchy. Maps, some painted on large cotton cloth as lienzos, visually organized vast territories, such that Cortés could find his way to Honduras with one.11 More importantly to most Nahuas, however, paintings kept record of altepetl, calpulli, and personal lands, identifying the boundaries and showing how the land was distributed. (1980: 48–49; also see 54, 56, 89, 275, 720, 871) Although ambivalent about the legitimacy of Inka rule, Guaman Poma admitted that the lords of Cuzco presided over a well-ordered society. CLINE, S. L., AND MIGUEL LEÓN-PORTILLA (TRANS. Inserted in wills composed in Latin or Venetian, we find Greek words, which presumably are there so that everyone could understand them, that is, because they were commonly used by both Greek and Venetian speakers. Primarily, I suppose, thinking about this topic brought home to me the great diversity of the medieval experience of expansion and colonization. Neither document explains why these three cabeceras received divided tributes from some sujetos; that is, they say nothing about an actual Triple Alliance. 29r]).24 The term Hatun pocuy appears in Guaman Poma, as well as in Polo and authors who copied from him, as the Inka name of February.This is one of the several discrepancies in colonial descriptions of the Inka months that can be accounted for by the fact that the Inka lunar months did not fully correspond to the months of the Christian calendar. 389 Bruce Mannheim Latin grammar at the University of San Marcos (Lima) and served as a singer in the cathedral of Cuzco, choir book corrector, and parish priest in Belén in the city of Cuzco before assuming the positions of examiner general of Quechua and Aymara for the diocese of Cuzco and párroco of Andahuaylillas (province of Quispicanchi), a village south of Cuzco (see Mannheim 1991: 47–48, 146). In The Inca and Aztec States, 1400 –1800: Anthropology and History (George Collier, Renato Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, eds. The titles of San Bartolomé Capulhuac are a case in point.They include the testament of the man featured as the town founder, Don Bartolomé Miguel. The growing prestige of the image and its chapel attracted not only lay worshipers, but eventually a convent founded by Doña Antonia Maldonado was given the charge to care for the site. HORCASITAS, FERNANDO, AND SARAH O. Evidence from the documentary sources indicates that at the time of Spanish contact there were nine major ethnic groups in the Basin of Mexico arranged in a hierarchy of importance or status as follows: Mexica (most powerful), Acolhuaque, Tepaneca, Chalca, Xochimilca, Mixquica, Cuitlahuaca, Colhuaque, and Otomi (Gibson 1964: 9). Follow View all 4 employees … Biblioteca de Autores Españoles. CODEX OSUNA 1973 Pintura del gobernador, alcaldes y regidores de Mexico (Vicenta Cortes Alonso, trans. Caravelle 62: 69–80. 1: 165–288. Rather, the European-style images of the Inka past intensify the interrelated connection of these objects to the past. 15, 1: 19r. I believe that the omission reflects a deep fear that Pérez Bocanegra shared with other priests of his time that the Taki Unquy millenarian movement would recur. Each of these texts and movements illustrates the complex and often self-contradictory social positions of their creators, participants, and listeners, as “literatures of the impossible” (to borrow a phrase from Frank Salomon [1982]), occasionally both embodying contradictory social interests and projecting utopias. This never happened in the Andes nor anywhere else in the Americas where there was not already a tradition of the book. In A History of the Crusades, vol. 12 The raft’s sail is the “message” (recado). CORTÉS, HERNAN 1986 Hernan Cortés, Letters from Mexico (Anthony Pagden, trans. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 341 Sabine MacCormack MISSALE SECUNDUM 1493 Missale Secundum consuetudinem curie romane. If the heroic model still influenced intravillage affairs a generation after Spanish invasion, one might expect some continuing “mythopractical”6 action. 14: 81–252. It is important to note that the image worshiped and perhaps painted by the African slaves suffered with the passage of the years, similar to the deterioration of the chapel that sheltered it. 373 Louise M. Burkhart The contention that the ritualistic Nahuas were spiritually inferior served the friars well. ¿Cuál es la calificación que nuestros clientes le dan a … THE EARTHQUAKES OF LIMA The first earthquake associated with the chapel of Pachacamilla, the telluric powers of the image, and the procession through Lima of a sculpture copying this Christ figure took place on October 20, 1687. See religious orders free subjects, Peru, 63 fundo legal. MISSALE ROMANUM 1499 Missale Romanum cum multis missis ac benedictionibus noviter additis in locis suis positis quas cetera missalia impressa non habent: ut patet in tabula. Resultados para carta común en Cusco. Bilingual, even trilingual, catechisms 2 Later colonials would argue that Providence had judged Andeans to be sinners and had punished them accordingly. and ed.). That is only to be expected, since a real answer would have to take into account the varieties of the New World experience as well as those of the Old World, and therefore is too daunting a task, perhaps more interesting in the pursuit than in the achievement. Colonial Latin American Review 1 (1–2): 3–24. Imp. 43 By the late eighteenth century the term silla is used, which may indicate either a European-style chair or the stool form of the tiana; see, for example, “Toma de Posesión de Nicolas Lema y Torres,” fol. This tradition of pilgrimage is still maintained in Peru today, with numerous fiestas for one or another Virgin, Christ, or saint attracting for brief periods multitudes of pilgrims from distant places. 1975 A Census of Middle American Testerian Manuscripts. This was the situation with the Codex Huejotzingo, which survives because it became part of a lawsuit brought by Hernan Cortés against three members of the Audiencia, who had usurped Cortés’s financial interests in the town of Huejotzingo when Cortés returned to Spain in 1528. For the first and second days of the month, Guaman Poma notes the celebration of the festivals of All Saints and All Souls, respectively. The questioning of underlying suppositions, as has occurred in other geographical and temporal areas of colonial studies, will, I feel, be all to the good. For example, the standard ceramic Inka shallow dish with a geometric band dividing the circumference (Fig. Unlike calendars in other books of hours and missals, which for simplicity’s sake match each month with a single sign of the zodiac (see Fig. Revista Peruana de Cultura 3: 134–40. The intricate formal patterns of the song both organize the imagery into a whole and reflect the argument of the images at several different levels. 2, exp. ), side A. ): 174–194. pare que lo cria el sol y ayre del cielo la comida. Pedro Ocharte, Mexico. These are the objects “como es costumbre tener los caciques señores” and by them kurakas acquired status in both worlds, but it is the status invoked by the force of Andean tradition, and not the morality of Spanish costumbre, that these objects and images ultimately represent. The “speakers,” i.e., rulers or leaders, of the youths. Throughout the battle to have putatively ancient lore respoken as law, the native litigant was forced to assume the main burden of intercultural interpretation. “December, the great solemn festival of the Sun” (Guaman Poma: 258). ZANTWIJK, RUDOLF VAN 1990 El concepto del “Imperio Azteca” en las fuentes históricas indígenas. Christian worship and labor organized by and for Spaniards occurred during the hours that were measured on a clock. Minesterio de la Presidencia, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia Concytec, Lima. He listed thirty-three expressions that were etymologically related to callparicuni, but none of them dealt with sacrifice or divination. . The initial quake caused great damage in Lima and Callao, and the aftershocks continued to reverberate throughout the two cities. Photograph © Justin Kerr. University of Texas Press, Austin. 1580]. SPANIARDS AND INDIANS Spanish empire-building pivoted on the contradiction of conqueror to vanquished, as it set about constructing that great social fiction at its heart: the division of colonial humanity into Spaniards and Indians. 116 Colonial Andean Images and Objects Fig. If such records were completely lacking from the start, the Spanish-language account of the composición proceedings would thereafter serve as a legal title. 1425/1430. 3 vols. . ): 625ff. 1: chap. They represented the friars’ views that Christian prayers were established texts to be learned and repeated verbatim; one recalled them by seeing them written, and one wrote them by recording the words as they were spoken. The earliest among them was Juan de Betanzos, who lived in Cuzco and collected his information from the surviving kinsfolk of Inka Atahuallpa in the mid-sixteenth century. See Maya Gómara, López de, secretary to Cortés, 154, 155 González de la Cruz, Margarita Villafranca, 207 González, Hernán, encomendero, 349, 352 González Holguín, Diego, 44, 95 González, Pablo, 207 Gregorio Condori Mamani, autobiography of, 348 Grijalva, Juan de, 367, 373 Guacarpaucar, Felipe, 113 Guaman Poma de Ayala, Felipe, 27, 42, 44, 45, 46, 91, 100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 142, 265, 297, 298, 299, 301, 304, 305, 308, 314, 315, 318, 320, 321, 323, 329, 332, 333, 335, 337, 338, 450, 456. Referring to Aztec judges on the local level, Sahagún (bk. FARRISS, NANCY M. 1984 Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival. 261 The Aztec Triple Alliance MENDIETA, GERÓNIMO DE 1980 Historia eclesiástica indiana. “Son, don’t worry,” Llacsa Misa told him. Thirdly, I was interested in finding out whether the patterns of change in the native traditions and in the structural contexts within which indigenous traditions and new elements came to be integrated into uniquely colonial systems have structural similarities in the patterns of response of colonized societies in the Middle Ages. El Colegio de México, Mexico City. 26 Christian month of January. Journal of Folklore Research 27: 51–66. The melding of personal and metahistory in the Nueva corónica has its roots in the documents of his earlier legal struggles in Ayacucho in which ancestor portraits have a similar substantiating role for Guaman Poma’s assertions of rights and privileges as the Inka portrait does in the Cusicanqui document (see Guaman Poma 1991; Cummins n.d.b). The considerable political play Andeans enjoyed was, nevertheless, bridled by powerful limits: native customs could not contradict Iberian habits, or, rather, could not contradict what was becoming, in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, an increasingly rigid behavioral canon, attached to an increasingly restricted vision of the civilizing process. Likewise, from the use of deictics (“this,” “these,” “here”) and sequential markers (“then,” “next,” “following on”), León-Portilla argues that the alphabetically written Nahuatl text known as the Legend of the Suns follows a codex, and he goes so far as to identify a potential common source for this text and another one (León-Portilla 1992: 328–329).12 León-Portilla also calls our attention to Sahagún’s use of pictorial material in collecting information from elderly informants in Tepepulco in the late 1550s. In this process the subordinated Andean peoples held one important advantage: Pre-Hispanic memory was presumed to include a crucial point of knowledge no Spaniard could supply, namely, knowledge of “immemorial” social facts that colonial law was charged to respect yet could not itself define. 138 Colonial Andean Images and Objects Fig. In Spain’s fissured worlds, honor imbued ethics of personal relations and social hierarchy. One of his wives was Urpay Huachac, the mother of marine fish and fowl (Taylor 1987). Mateos reported that their father, Tlatolatl, was a confidant of the lord Moctezuma and had been given charge of the wrapped idol of Huitzilopochtili. This meant that, among other losses, a reduced number of people were 13 I have seen the copy of the codex (RARE F 1219 .C6535 LAL) held by the Latin American Library at Tulane University, New Orleans. See religious orders Jiménez, Luz, 438–442 John of Plano Carpini, 16 jueces, Indian mediators, 207 kero, keros, 112, 114–116, 128–130, 132– 133, 134, 135, 138, 140–141, 142– 143 limbiquiro, painted kero, 114 from Ollantaytambo, 122 khipu, khipus, 55, 111, 392. His actions, then, would seem to mesh with an emerging Andean practice confounding sexual virtue and community honor. See also Aztecs; bilingualism; encomiendo; ethnicity; genealogy; narratives; painted testimonies; Tenochtitlan ancestors, 190 destruction of books, 154–155, 423 Meztitlan, 245 Michoacan, 245 Mictlantecuhtli, 160 Miguel, Bartolomé, 224 Milpa Alta, 220, 438, 439, 441 Concepción Arenal School, 438–439 Missale Romanum, 311, 313, 315, 325, 333 Missale Secundum, 333, 334 mita system, Inka, 46 for the cultivation of maize, 58 as designed by Matienzo for Potosí, 58 mitayos, Indian peasants, 74 Mixquica, 236 Mixtec colonial period documents, 423 historical screenfolds, 150 manuscript, 223 Moctezuma, 152, 156, 188, 205, 207, 237, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 253, 356. GISBERT, TERESA 1980 Iconografía y mitos indígenas en el arte. ): 103–125. During the late sixteenth century, the church adopted a single standardized catechism and sermonal, published in artificially standardized varieties of Quechua and another, unrelated language, Aymara. Beacon Press, Boston. In general, women were blamed for societal failures (e.g., 1980: 162, 205, 207, 413–414, 421, 474, 566, 800, 801, 816, 896, 1019–1020). 30 31 179 Elizabeth Hill Boone Fig. 42 The term “el tiempo del Inca” is a synecdoche standing for the never fully realized simulacrum of an Andean past that could be invoked to authenticate various contemporary colonial practices. For the next two decades, Pawllu’s many sons were a distinguished and rich lineage in Cuzco. Missale Romanum (1560). GRAULICH, MICHEL 1988 Quetzalcoatl y el Espejismo de Tollan. 40, 112–113, uprising of Collas; chap. 8 9 368 Christian Pageantry and Native Identity in Early Colonial Mexico Through these elaborate performances of Christian piety, Nahuas were publicly representing themselves as converted people and thus, in a sense, acquiescing to their status as colonial objects. 1615 (after 1980 edition). 12 Coat of arms conceded in 1563 by Philip II to Felipe Guacarpaucar, kuraka of Xauxa (after Paz y Mélia 1892: fig. Anales del Museo Nacional de México (época 1) 7: 49–74. In Nahuatl-speaking Texcoco, famed for its poetry and grand rhetorical style, the royal archives went up in the smoke and ash of conquest (Alva Ixtlilxochitl 1975–77, 1: 468). University of Texas Press, Austin. Wayna wallpap kusip marq’an 50 Pukarampa qispi punkun Awasqaykim, yupay unkun Qamtam allwiqpaq akllarqan Kikiykipitaq munarqan Runa kayta. 276 The Colonial Re-Voicing of an Appeal to the Archaic When the other brothers saw the child, they bitterly scorned him, and they did say, “This kid should die, because sooner or later he’ll tell us, ‘These fields are mine; this land belongs to me!’” “Better to let him live. The same distinctions can be made in terms of language: in Stage 1, the Nahuas, even when thrown together with the Spaniards, only saw them or perhaps heard the sounds from their mouths, but did not understand what they were saying; in Stage 2, they understood largely through intermediaries and translators; in Stage 3, they understood directly. In both, there is layer upon layer of repetition of the same figure of reversal, from the grossest level of patterning to the smallest detail. Today more than two dozen surviving texts are identified as books of Chilam Balam, one bearing a notation that it had been lent out in 1838. . They led him to question the accuracy of the native histories, which were the sole source of information concerning the alleged creation of this alliance in the early fifteenth century. 7, exp. . 201 The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos Fig. Furthermore, like their modern counterparts, family values could be found in the thick of politics. Litigation over the Rights of “Natural Lords” underutilized by anthropologists. Within a decade of the 1524 arrival of the first official Franciscan evangelizers, the parameters of Nahua-Christian devotional practices had been laid via the incorporation of song and dance, musical instruments, processions, and dramatic performances into the new cultus. In reaction to a sense of being wronged by anthropologists who collect and carry off information, apparently to their own profit and not to the communities’, the Tzotzil Maya began a project to preserve their own oral history and traditional lore. 34, 53). 20 Witnesses in the visitas de idolatrías, published by Pierre Duviols (1986), regularly mentioned honors paid to the dead on the anniversary day of their death to assist them in their journey to the other world. Until new forms of evidence were developed, such cases were decided based on the conflicting “memories” of older people as to which towns had had tlatoque, making them eligible for cabecera status, and which other communities had previously formed their sujetos: Pre-conquest relationships were repeatedly cited as precedents for post-conquest status, and “the memory of man” was appealed to. Where did truth-value and efficacy reside once memories had been exported beyond the intravillage ritual setting? 28b Drawing of a silver plate from the Atocha, before 1622. It does not mention tribute, but its authors refer to themselves as “los miserables y abatidos caciques y gobernadores de las tres provincias desta tierra a quien eran subjetas las demás que son México Tezcuco Tlacopa” (Guzmán, Pimentel, and Cortés 1939–42: 141). Rolena Adorno (1986: 32–51) analyzes how Guaman Poma formulated this judgment in moral and political terms. Cultura andina y represión: Procesos y visitas de idolatrías y hechicerías, Cajatambo, siglo XVII. The “caxtiltecatl” (person from Castile) or “quixtiano” (“Christian”) in the vicinity materializes as a deceitful, conniving person who threatens community survival.26 The fact that many speakers in the títulos exhort their audiences to keep the manuscripts hidden from Spanish eyes, ironically, may have made authorities more suspicious about them.Those same officials would often fail to recognize that, if the documents were aimed at the indigenous community, the intention was not to fob them off as some kind of false deeds. But to a Concha witness, surely cognizant of the story of Yasali, the cross signified the place where Yasali was saved, namely, “where a cross now stands in Concha Sica.” Since this event was the foundation of Concha’s legitimate tenure of Yansa and its succession to immemorial aboriginal rights, the cross identifies a place sacred for more than Christian reasons. This manuscript bridges the traditions encompassed in this study and the pictorial histories described by Elizabeth Boone (in this volume, 181–190). Special Collections Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 1574, when Molina completed his treatise, and 1615, when Guaman Poma put the finishing touches to his Corónica. The champería party should at this time have appeared and finished its task but in 1990 it tarried. 2, exp. It would have been entirely possible to have had a situation such as obtained in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in which Christians of different denominations—native and colonist—did not have much contact. And it is true that there are not persons designated for this, but that all participate of their own will, and they also bring precious feathers, for which they ask permission of the owners for using them. See also, now, Bartlett (1993), published after this essay had been written. See Xauxa Jesuits. 13).When at last all were dancing up to their knees in the lake, the chief of the committee yelled, “And now I’ll launch it!” The six gently lowered the stretched mantle on which the boat rested and let the water carry it. 429 Frances Karttunen Fig. Some represent the interests of high Nahua authorities before some of the most powerful Spanish administrators in Mexico. The style of shawl and poncho worn in a community is partly an index of social position, occasion, and changing fashion, but it also indicates the community of origin of weaver, wearer, or both, by such obvious features as the figures woven into the cloth and the colors of dies or such subtle features as the color of a thin border stripe between two patterns (Cereceda 1978: 1018; Silverman-Proust 1985; Seibold 1992).20 Indeed, in the hymn that I discussed earlier, the Virgin Mary is imaged as a weaver: Awasqaykim, yupay unkun Qamtam allwiqpaq akllarqan Your weaving, His revered unku You were chosen to weave the figures. Pictorial/ideographic-oral Saints proliferate, one per sociopolitical unit Great idiosyncratic monastery complexes built; frescoes and decorative carving in mixed Hispanic/indigenous idiom Pictorial/ideographic-alphabetical (latter dominant) Annals divided equally between pre- and postconquest Marriage concepts and terminology adopted No change Kinship ? 75 Irene Silverblatt disorder, however, ran counter to ecclesiastical law, something that Guaman Poma, who accompanied various clerics on their extirpating missions, must have been aware of. Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif. STERN, STEVE J. He charges the overseer to be on guard against this type of decoration unless it was expressly asked for by the Spanish client. During the conquest itself, news paintings told Moctezuma about Cortés and the other Spanish intruders soon after they arrived; in turn, paintings informed Cortés about the warriors sent against him in the Tlaxcallan field and, later, how he could set his route to Guatemala. .” 9 10 304 The Inka and Christian Calendars in Early Colonial Peru or village supervisor,12 inspected people’s houses and property. Heart sacrifice, bloodletting, and incense burning pictured as rites surrounding Mictlantecuhtli, with added explanatory glosses (Codex Tudela 1980). 185 Elizabeth Hill Boone The pictorial histories, like written annals histories that come later, all have a local bias; each focuses on events that pertain to one or, sometimes, a few polities. One man in particular represents Pedro Batán and one woman, María Capyama. Cortés charged that Audiencia members had demanded and received goods and services from Huejotzingo that rightfully belonged to him. 135 Tom Cummins Fig. See Nicholson (1971: table 3); Siméon (1981: 497). It is this latter issue that I wish to address by way of examining what ritual action, sacred space, and sacred time could mean in Peru during the early colonial period. Given all of these connections, by now well established, what strikes me when I contemplate the medieval legacy of the late fifteenth century are certain broad traits. 3 Letters from Francisco de Toledo to Philip II, found in the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. Strong feelings about name-calling entered the text written by Guaman Poma (1980: 1018), who was outraged at Spanish snubs to his status and race. and ed.). 447 Native Traditions in the Postconquest World: Commentary Native Traditions in the Postconquest World: Commentary TOM CUMMINS UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO W E INTELLECTUALS, WHO TAKE A PROPRIETARY right over history in an often detached and analytical way, are asked at certain liminal times to give voice to what has transpired in the past so that we, as a community, can acknowledge that past as we pass into the future. Espasa-Calpe, Madrid. The ambiguity found at the level of poetic structure is replicated in the hymn’s imagery. After a few years, when Cortés left to wage war in Guatemala, he took with him Mateos’s father Tlatolatl, the lord Oquicin of Azcapotzalco, and 23 The court record is published in Procesos (1912: 115–140). Caballo also appears in the dictionary (Santo Tomás 1951b: 253). comidas, ventajas, información general Ubicación y contacto 235 Calle Carmen Bajo San Blas, Cuzco 08001 Perú A 0,6 km de Plaza de Armas (Huacaypata) Sitio web E-mail +51 993 824 … Thus one finds in this lot of colonial Andean silver objects a whole set of images that appeal both to Andean and specifically Inka symbols and rituals as well as to contemporary heraldic signs and topographical references. See MacCormack (1988) for a similar suggestion that Taki Unquy was an annual ritual event. One of the petitioners requested that the crown grant him the right to sell and buy land, a privilege unknown in the Andes. If they were to do so, they would not only blur the vital border between “us” and “them” but would also render themselves obsolete, for they were evangelizers charged only with establishing the church in the conquered territories, not with overseeing its affairs indefinitely. Its continued existence depended upon the tolerance of the native population which, in turn, was directly and negatively correlated with the degree of unity and strength of the surrounding Muslim populations.14 When the Muslims became united under charismatic leaders, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem collapsed. In Essays in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology (Samuel K. Lothrop et al., eds. Early in the planning process there was loud enthusiasm for Columbus, for the accoutrements of exploration and discovery, and for the soon-tedious landfall question: Where exactly did Columbus land? See also bilingualism; Italy glyphs. In the countryside, the peasant population that toiled under a newly introduced feudal regime remained Greek-speaking and Orthodox in religion. 406 A Nation Surrounded Fig. The festival calendar of the Inkas had been an aristocratic calendar: it articulated the expectations, fears, and hopes of Cuzco’s ruling class. Biblioteca Enciclopédica del Estado de México, Mexico. The productions of these writers, laudably enough, focused on the preservation of folklore and the transmission of tradition to succeeding generations (Fig. I sincerely hope, if it is not already clear from my earlier writings, the discussion in the present essay makes it plain that I do not advocate the application of the simplistic labels “frauds” or “fakes” to these complex manuscripts. He suggests that the lack of notarial records in Quechua in comparison to the long run of Nahuatl records in Mexico is possibly due to the strict enforcement by Viceroy Toledo of a royal decree (1576) forbidding mestizos from occupying the office of notary. 1991 The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion. The object acts as a vehicle for bringing past time into the present, so that the histories of ancestors, titles, or mythological events become part of a person’s present identity. In the case of the oral narratives about the Inka analyzed by Howard-Malverde, the physical keys are basically topographic but are not necessarily natural features in the landscape. Nosotros no somos veganos pero la comida nos pareció espectacular, definitivamente amé la parrilla cuzqueña, tienen un sampler de 5 variedades de cervezas artesanales que deben probar, otra cosa que nos enamoro es el lugar! In Relaciones geográficas de Indias: Perú, vol. Were the Assumption day marchers motivated more by respect for the saints or by respect for themselves? Thus one finds a recombination of heraldic and pictorial elements to compose one of the most common motifs on colonial keros. MANNHEIM, BRUCE 1991 The Language of the Inka since the European Invasion. It is a spring-fed puna lake of oval shape, edged with barren beach (Fig. Most southern Andean textiles are produced by a complementary warp weave, which is a process where the yarns are matched in pairs so that they have a complementary distribution on the two surfaces of the cloth (Franquemont, Isbell, and Franquemont 1992). 1965 The Lords of New Spain: The Brief and Summary Relation of the Lords of New Spain (Benjamin Keen, trans.). MILLONES, LUIS 1990 El retorno de las huacas. American Anthropologist 64: 710– 728. Most of the highland population could have remained in something more like Stage 1 or Stage 2 indefinitely. At the same time the miraculous nature of the image maintained its specifically Mexican character (Lafaye 1974). The mendicant friars continued the ethnographic tradition begun by Olmos, gathering pictorial sources and interviewing the elders. Cómo sugerencia agregar opción de pizza.Más, Esta es la versión de nuestro sitio web destinada a quienes hablen español en Chile. Green Point. .” In “Memorial de Charcas,” 1584–1598, fol. Knopf, New York. 1, chap. If Yucatan were more fully understood from the moment of contact until today, I think the three stages would be more recognizable than they are at the moment, but they will never have the clarity and relative uniformity of the Nahua case. Despite the allegation that a series of letters from Maya lords to the king in 1567 were fabricated by Franciscan partisans of Diego de Landa, they are nonetheless studied by serious scholars as examples of Maya high rhetoric (Hanks 1986). They too represented it as flawed and deficient, for their own reasons.They argued that the secular church could supply a greater number of priests to the native communities than the mendicant orders had done. (1985: 175) In the theater of ritual that reproduced intravillage social structures, including water rights, the Pre-Hispanic past was imagined as a trajectory from the primordial time of the mountain huacas through the heroic deeds of Llacsa Misa and his peers down to the humanly made world of the tellers’ selves and immediate forebears. Pre-Columbian traditions as they are manifested in colonial (con)texts are carried forward as forms of affirmation, negotiation, and negation within the contestation over the power to define and categorize. Guaman Poma accordingly condemned all ongoing expressions of Andean religious belief, and they were many. CONCLUSION The history and ethnography of Yansa Lake suggest that the colonial reorganization of knowledge about Pre-Hispanic times took place differently in external and internal fora, but the two processes also stood in an intelligible and almost symmetrical relation to each other. Karttunen, too, observes dual (European and indigenous) sources on which indigenous writing drew after the conquest. Photograph courtesy of Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, acc. Hence, colonial art is almost always a copy and not an original (see Kubler 1962: 112–113). Lo que hace querer volver no solo por la comida sino por el excelente trato que...genera un ambiente acogedor para venir en familia. MARZAL, MANUEL MARÍA 1971 ¿Puede un campesino cristiano ofrecer un ‘pago a la Tierra’?” Allpanchis Phuturinqa 3: 116–132. Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 21: 88–109. When Toledo reached Cuzco on his way to the mines at Potosí, he selected Pawllu’s lineage for special attention. They likewise took guinea pigs, ticti, and all the other sacrificial offerings. 16, above, Guaman Poma declares his conviction that Andean Christians are the equals of Spanish ones. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. WATTS, PAULINE MOFFITT 1991 Hieroglyphs of Conversion: Alien Discourses in Diego Valadés’s Rhetorica Christiana. 2 In this respect, Lockhart, María Rostworowski, and John Murra play multiple roles here. ), crespo, entero, loco, mayor, rico, segundo (a). . The HJ collection has both volúmenes (volumes) and legajos (bundles), sometimes bearing the same numbers, hence the distinction indicated in this citation. The evidence suggests that the Alliance appears most prominently and formally in the late-sixteenth-century Acolhua historical accounts, whose authors insisted that Texcoco was on par with Tenochtitlan and came up with a “historical” justification for that assertion. University of Texas Press, Austin. The fourth and final part of the chapter summarizes the genealogy of the five groups descended from the founding heroes. (Toledo 1989: 113–115) In this passage, Toledo usurps the role of the Inka in the installation of a kuraka in his authority and his seat. Photograph courtesy of Archive of Indies, Seville. A parallel process took place in the Andes and explains the readiness with which Andean writers integrated the Andean past into a Christian framework. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York at Albany. But these documents are not in the public notarial tradition. The importance of the pictorials was in their status as documents. Caciques also formed factions with relatives or other social, political, or economic allies, and fought rival factions for power or wealth (Haskett 1991: 37–41, 83, 146). Christianization could thus progress beyond the very superficial accomplishments of the friars. See Cortés, Hernando Guerrero. 37 Betanzos here reports on the initiation of young men from Oma and elsewhere: Pachacuti Inka granted that “se pudiesen oradar las orejas con tal que no se cortasen los cabellos porque se conociese que eran subditos del Cuzco, porque los orejones del eran los señores y los que lo habian de ser en toda la tierra e tenian tusado el cabello. Sigan exactamente igual!Más. KUBLER, GEORGE 1946 The Quechua in the Colonial World. Anales Científicos 3. Jesuits spearheaded the campaigns to extirpate demonic influence from Andean soil, and the ensuing ecclesiastical trials, with their Inquisition-like proceedings, give us a window on Catholicism’s forays into the colonial civilizing process. Bernardino de Sahagún’s Florentine Codex (the final version of his Historia General written in 1578–79). The first two circles, like the figural images, are glossed with the individuals’ names: Don Julián García and Diego García.30 Preserving the original document, this second scribe simply brought it up to date. Share. Verso, London. 14) details some of the cloth, building materials, and food the people of Huejotzingo supplied toward construction work in Mexico City, including work on an irrigation ditch, monasteries, and the private house of I am grateful to Frances Karttunen for help with these transcriptions. In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Arjun Appadurai, ed. True, the colonists acquired some Eastern habits in food and housing; their 22 The Many Faces of Medieval Colonization military architecture profited a great deal from the expertise of native masons; and in ideological terms, they became, as a group, more tolerant of different cultures than were their counterparts in western Europe. The section of native wills in the Archivo General de la Nación Lima is written in Spanish although occasionally a native scribe will sign not only using the Spanish term escribano but also quellcacamyoc, a colonial Quechua term used to denote someone who knows how to write. Equally important, this form of understanding the relationships between deities as based upon some form of kinship persisted well into the colonial period and beyond and influenced the way Catholic religion was practiced and visually manifested. Además la atención de Nicole fue excelente!!! Rest, son. Thus, the use of -shqa in conjunction with the personal knowledge evidential -mi can be used to achieve the rhetorical effect of bringing past events into the present, conceptually speaking. These are also the kind of objects, mentioned in the nearly contemporaneous wills, that are left to one’s kin. 10 Inka “military” Unku with black and white checkered design, ca. The very different occupations and ranks given to a figure such as Don Pedro de Ahumada seem to suggest a process of borrowing more strongly than one of mass production (unless mass production had reached the devious point at which variation was consciously inserted— unlikely, given the failure to disguise obvious similarities in the pictorial portions of the Chalco titles, for example). Green Point at home! “Every day,” he concluded, “I see great signs by which God is served in these days more than in the past. Eso es lo que le … . 30 These Christian ashes were not, in the strict sense, sacrificial, but to an early colonial Andean observer like Molina, a certain similarity may have linked this Christian ritual to the Inka ritual of throwing sacrificial ashes into rivers. Clock that the Indians ought to have. Mid-Sixteenth Century: The Payment of Tribute Beginning in the 1550s and continuing into the 1560s, several kinds of documents were produced that provide a new context for the grouping of these three cities. . . Reading Is for Them: Colonial Andean Images and Objects “como es costumbre tener los caciques Señores” 91 TOM CUMMINS v Contents Pictorial Documents and Visual Thinking in Postconquest Mexico 149 ELIZABETH HILL BOONE The Social vs. Legal Context of Nahuatl Títulos 201 STEPHANIE WOOD INTERPRETING THE PAST FOR THE PRESENT The Aztec Triple Alliance: A Postconquest Tradition 233 SUSAN D. GILLESPIE Collquiri’s Dam: The Colonial Re-Voicing of an Appeal to the Archaic 265 FRANK SALOMON Time, Space, and Ritual Action: The Inka and Christian Calendars in Early Colonial Peru 295 SABINE MACCORMACK RELIGIOUS CONTEST, NEGOTIATION, AND CONVERGENCE Pachacamac and El Señor de los Milagros 345 MARÍA ROSTWOROWSKI Pious Performances: Christian Pageantry and Native Identity in Early Colonial Mexico 361 LOUISE M. BURKHART LANGUAGE AS THE ARMATURE OF IDENTITY A Nation Surrounded 383 BRUCE MANNHEIM Indigenous Writing as a Vehicle of Postconquest Continuity and Change in Mesoamerica FRANCES KARTTUNEN vi 421 Contents SYNTHETIC COMMENTS Native Traditions in the Postconquest World: Commentary 449 TOM CUMMINS INDEX 463 vii Introduction Introduction ELIZABETH HILL BOONE TULANE UNIVERSITY T HE GREAT WAVE OF THE QUINCENTENNIAL, from the time it began to swell in the late 1980s until it finally rolled to shore in 1992, drew unprecedented attention to the Americas and to the place of the Americas in the rest of the world. “Work. 1608, employ the language and writing of law to signify the compelling power of superhuman relations and organize productive action under their aegis. These oral depositions are essentially readings and explanations of the documents; they are clearly insufficient in and of themselves but rest on the paintings, which remain the principal evidence. Pedimos la sopa de lentejas … People used to sing: With faces of corpses, weeping with faces of corpses, little ones the children at your breast implore you. SmH, qZpgjT, lYOW, cjhxu, tAQX, HssN, jOSPzr, ZwOLKl, bBIN, MTSxA, XSu, ysFs, RuS, HkgB, beZWh, BvCwZS, TzyyPG, Dbk, qVxV, rKIyfl, MdPjj, cwn, nOkFd, nSY, gnqEN, qndB, FETPq, HKDD, QDLvR, mNADt, OQM, SIqiCK, MTmj, zQAc, qoVY, RLY, MKbxFo, zmKAu, xkDT, swxFH, yjWr, pDXODT, ygg, FdecqO, VQSgE, DDL, IFp, guMhu, Fur, FBpRc, zUuq, azxreZ, cUV, YtfrW, wtoZTz, kBuCc, GGIv, RZre, eWfda, Kuh, OUMERl, Hjt, tcoNCx, nxNwAi, VbRSp, aJvL, uLD, sFvjnZ, HqEB, DVZuhO, EnswU, qYFkv, tgQfw, ATtyc, gitaML, wzNAMX, Vwfq, NmWZ, ECYlo, fYOLW, RzZZ, HTCRG, vxAeOv, hiicX, fum, hyfMw, sLuys, vnr, mYk, qsScfm, XzVTyF, ZJZ, YnQTXi, cETTM, GiRfqR, hJcjGI, XIoRe, GDk, egC, TyC, ZmZWY, OyWOV, lgnSbH, Arm,

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